ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
(submitted by Bari Norman)
Counseling the Student Athlete for Academic and Athletic Fit
Healy, S.F., O’Reilly, J.R., Gurney, G., & Matthay, E. (1995). Advising athletes. In E. Matthay (Ed.), Counseling for college: a professional’s guide (pp. 322 – 329). New York: NY: Peterson’s.
The authors suggest that the high school counselor has a multi-faceted role in preparing the student athlete for and counseling the student athlete on college admission and college success. According to the authors, the counselor should oversee several aspects of transitioning the high school student athlete into a collegiate student athlete: preparing the student athlete for success in college, accurately assessing athletic programs at the college level, understanding eligibility criteria for freshmen and other “governing structures of collegiate athletics in the United States,” and preparedness to work with coaches and college admissions officers.
Inviting successful athletes as guest speakers is suggested as one programmatic option. This encourages enthusiasm about collegiate and professional athletics, while also maintaining a sense of reality regarding success in such fields. According to the authors, transitioning this population to college should also entail educating student athletes about the many commitments and benefits of a student athlete at the collegiate level. Skills such as time management, leadership, cooperation, and physical prowess are all benefits of athletic participation.
It is crucial that the counselor be aware of the experience of student athletes on campus and that the prospective recruit is aware of this, as well. The athletic community is distinct at each institution and the student athlete is very much a part of this community – academically, athletically, and socially. What support services so these communities offer, and what type of communities are appropriate fits for each student athlete? In addition, counselors must familiarize themselves with the eligibility requirements set forth by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Specific and strict rules govern the recruitment of student athletes and all rules must be adhered to carefully throughout the process.
The authors also touch upon considerations for female athletes and instruct the counselor to pay particular attention to the adequacy of and access to facilities, support services, travel arrangements, and meals. Are the services the same for female and male athletes? Finally, the authors warn against recruiters and the many promises they may make to interested students. Helpful advice includes guiding students by the fit of the college and the athletic community, and not by the (sometimes empty) promises of recruiters. Counselors are reminded that recruitment of athletes is sales, and to essentially be an educated and cautious consumer and not to get caught up in the sales pitch.
Hernandez, M.A. (1997). A is for admission: the insider’s guide to getting into the Ivy League and other top colleges. New York: Warner Books.
Former Assistant Director of Admissions at Dartmouth, Hernandez gives her reader an insider’s view of the college application review process. Of particular note for athletes in this book is the Academic Index (AI), a mathematical formula that consists of the applicant’s GPA, class rank (when available) and standardized test scores (SAT, ACT, and/or SAT Subject Tests). The AI is run on each athletic recruit (as on all other applicants – though it has less significance for non-athletes) and helps determine an athletic recruits’ viability in the highly competitive applicant pools at Ivy League colleges. The AI is specific to the Ivy League, and only applies to those athletes recruited by members of this athletic league.
Hernandez points out that just 2.5 percent of the entire applicant pool at Dartmouth is comprised of athletic recruits. So, ultimately, athletic recruiting affects a tiny percentage of applicants; however, a tremendous amount of time and resources are put into the recruitment of this group. This relatively small group is also admitted at rates of 60 – 70 percent – significantly higher than the admit rate of approximately 20 percent at Dartmouth at the time of this book’s last printing.
Hernandez also tells of the “Squeeze Play,” whereby another institution offers the athlete an early admission decision and financial aid package (which may include, in whole or in part, aid based on athletic merit). Ivy League colleges can compete with such offers by offering an early admission decision to the applicant; however, no athletic scholarships are awarded by members of the Ivy League and all financial aid is awarded based solely on need.
This chapter is helpful to counselors who are advising student athletes looking at Ivy League colleges. It gives an honest inside view at the review process of this special population. While it is clear that student athletes are admitted under special circumstances, it is also clear that there are high academic and athletic standards also in place. Of particular use to the counselor in this book is the AI formula, which any counselor can compute for a specific candidate.
Hinkle, S.J. (1994). Counseling: helping student-athletes. (Report No. ED379532). Greensboro, NC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services. Retrieved May 24, 2006 from e-subscribe database.
With the increased media attention and glorification of collegiate and professional athletics has come increased psychosocial problems among student athletes. Constant evaluation by others and the pressure to perform weigh heavily on student athletes – not to mention the academic pressures of student life. Sports psychologists often focus on performance and coaches focus on athletic training, professional counselors who can handle the emotional and psychological issues specific to student athletes are needed. The author argues that sports counseling is distinct from sports psychology in that “sports counseling’s focus is on the athlete’s development as an individual, including personal and clinical issues associated with sport performance.” Counselors also recognize and deal with athletic diversity, an area of diversity often ignored under traditional programs, which take for granted that the athletic population is diverse in and of itself.
In addition to mental and psychosocial counseling, practical counseling services, such as those relating to career development and job placement are also necessary for athletes. Since most collegiate athletes do not advance to the professional leagues and/or the Olympics, such services are crucial (in addition to counseling that addresses the reality of not advancing to these more competitive levels). Counselors and students of counseling interested in becoming better versed in sports counseling will find courses dedicated to this area at Florida State University, University of North Carolina – Greensboro, University of South Carolina, Southern Illinois University, Syracuse University, and Springfield College.
This article uncovers yet another layer of counseling the college-bound student athlete. It is also clear that, as counselors, we must be involved in not only getting students in and finding the right schools for them, but also in helping students develop emotionally. Part of proper placement is ensuring that such support is also available at the college level and specifically for the concerns of student athletes, when necessary.
Hughes, C. (2003). What it really takes to get into the Ivy League & other highly selective colleges. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Internal institutional priorities guide how admissions decisions are made for athletic recruits. Division I teams tend to take priority, as do nationally competitive teams. In the Ivy League, athletes tend to make up anywhere between 10 and 20 percent of the incoming freshman class. With more than 40 Division I varsity athletic teams, Harvard has the more than any other school in the Ivy League.
Hughes suggests that students get in touch with coaches early on – before senior year and even as early as sophomore year in the cases of teams with lower recruiting budgets. Contact may be made by the student, a coach, or even an alumnus. Competition for the best athletes (as well as the best students) permeates the Ivy League, and so early contact and developed relationships can be a plus.
Hughes also reviews the Athletic Index (AI) formula, which is as follows:
Formula A (if average SAT/converted ACT is higher than the average of the three highest SAT II scores):
AI = [SAT 9best critical reading) + SAT (best math) divided by 2] + [SAT (best critical reading) + SAT (best math) divided by 2] + class rank score
Formula B (if the three highest SAT II scores are higher than the SAT/ACT converted score):
AI = [SAT 9best critical reading) + SAT (best math) divided by 2] + [SAT II + SAT II + SAT II divided by 3] + class rank score
The AI, Hughes argues, can be the defining criteria for some coaches. Because admission is so competitive and several factors are taken into account during the admissions process, academically competitive and prepared students are crucial. Given the AI’s role in the selection of athletes, it plays a major role in the process.
Hughes also delves into the intricacies of different sports and also pays particular attention to women’s sports and Title IX, particularly in the Ivy League. He offers specific advice on how the athletic recruit should proceed, depending on his/her academic profile and sport of interest, making it a particularly helpful guide for counseling the higher achieving student athlete.
Lucas, J. & Lovaglia M. (2002). Athletes’ expectations for success in athletics compared to academic competition.” The Sport Journal, 5(2). Retrieved May 25, 2006, from http://www.thesportjournal.org/2002Journal/Vol5-No2/expectations.asp
This research explores academic and social expectations of student athletes and non-athletes. According to a 1995 report by the NCAA, 3 percent of students enter college under special programs that waive typical admissions requirements; however, another study reports that 20 percent of college football and basketball players enter under similar “special admittance programs.”
The researchers distributed questionnaires to students at The University of Akron, The University of Iowa, Kent State University, and Louisiana State University. The Student Academic Questionnaire (SAQ) measured “attitudes toward academic success” was administered randomly to 302 students (135 non-athletes and 33 athletes). The Student Assessment Survey (SAS) measured “attitudes toward athletic success” and was administered to 252 students (124 non-athletes and 23 athletes). The data supported the authors’ hypotheses that student athletes perceived “greater costs and fewer benefits to accompany a university education.” In addition, student athletes were “less motivated to perform academically” than non-athletes.
This article provides insight into the academic and social characteristics and needs of this population. Given that athletes are often admitted under special programs and student athletes’ attitudes regarding a university education (as not related to sports), it is important for counselors to anticipate the possibility of academic struggles (another fact reported by Lucas and Lovaglia). Counselors must gauge student athletes’ expectations – both academic and socially and both during college and after college. Athletic ability may indeed be a gateway to higher education for a segment of the population who may otherwise not have access to such opportunity, and it is the responsibility of high school and college counselors to anticipate the needs of this special population and to counsel them in the right direction.
McEvoy, C. (2006). The impact of elite individual athletic performance on university applicants for admission in NCAA Division I-A football. The Sport Journal, 9(1). Retrieved May 25, 2006, from http://www.thesportjournal.org/2006Journal/Vol9-No1/McEvoy1.asp
The “Flutie Factor” refers to the increase in applications a university or college receives following a high profile win or success by an individual athlete. For instance, Boston College saw a 30 percent increase in undergraduate applications following BC quarterback Doug Flutie’s Heisman Trophy win. A similar effect is seen following high profile athletic wins by whole teams, as well. Examples of this effect exist at Georgetown University, Northwestern University, and Gonzaga University, following string performances by athletic teams in national competitions.
While previous studies have looked at team performance and application increases, no study has looked specifically at high profile individual athletes and college applications. Using a rigorous quantitative analysis that took into account a top five Heisman Trophy finisher at an institution, McEvoy looked specifically at schools with Division I-A football teams and found that institutions saw, on average, a 6.59 percent increase in undergraduate applications in the year following a football player finishing in the top five if the Heisman Trophy competition. The results reported were tested to be statistically significant.
The results of such a study have implications for counselors and for colleges and universities. In the wake of a top five Heisman finisher, institutions can expect a moderate increase in applications – how or whether this will affect the selection process and criteria will vary. From the counselor’s perspective, an increase in applications means increased difficulty getting in. In addition, counselors should be especially sensitive to student athletes’ expressed interests in colleges and universities that may have recently enjoyed such high profile recognition. Does the student want to go to that particular college for the right reasons? Based on McEvoy’s study, we can expect University of Southern California, University of Texas, Penn State, and Notre Dame – all of whom had players finish in the top five of the 2005 Heisman competition (USC had two players represented in the top five) – to see about a 7 percent increase in applications next year, based on the Heisman competition alone.
National Association for College Admission Counseling. (2002). NACAC Statement on Recruitment and Admission of Student Athletes. Retrieved on May 28, 2006, from
http://www.nacacnet.org/NR/rdonlyres/279DD661-A728-4A0A-8ACE-4B944A259472/0/StmtRcrtmtStdtAthNEW.pdf
In 1981, NACAC moved to protect both students and institutions in response to “questionable practices used in recruiting student athletes.” This Statement offers an abridged form of the NACAC Statement of Principles of Good Practice (SPGP) geared specifically toward colleges and universities and secondary schools. Citing guidelines set forth by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and ethical standards set forth by NACAC’s SPGP, NACAC encourages open and honest communication between the institution, the student athletic recruit, the coaches, and the high school counselors, up to the highest level of administration. Academic and athletic expectations should be made clear as part of the recruitment process and studies of academic performance, retention and graduation experience of student athletes are to be studied. A holistic review of all applicants, including student athletes is encouraged.
This Statement is helpful as a guide for individuals counseling the college bound student athlete, as athletic recruits are considered a special population in college admission, and counselors need to be aware of the guidelines that apply to this special population. This Statement must be referred to in conjunction with the eligibility criteria provided by the NCAA Clearinghouse, as there are many rules and guidelines for athletic recruits, coaches, and admissions personnel. Updated in 2002, this Statement remains timely and up to date.
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (2005). The guide for college-bound student-athletes. Retrieved May 25, 2006, from http://www.ncaa.org/library/general/cbsa/2005-06/2005-06_cbsa.pdf
This is the Bible for prospective Division I and Division II athletic recruits and the counselors who assist in advising them through the college admissions and recruitments processes. This Guide, aimed at students and their parents, lays out eligibility requirements for student athletes, as well as the recruiting regulations that govern contact between recruits and college coaches from start-to-finish. There are many intricate rules that govern the recruitment process, and they are outlined here. The bulk of this publication is devoted to what the NCAA calls “initial eligibility.”
An overview of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) is provided, as is information on amateurism eligibility; academic eligibility requirements by division; definitions of core courses; guidelines for GPA, tests, and special conditions; an overview of the initial eligibility clearinghouse; and a synopsis of recruiting regulations. A glossary also helps in deciphering different terminologies common to college admissions and recruiting.
Helpful counseling tools are available as part of the Guide in the form of “Details for High-School Counselors and Athletics Administrators.” In this section, counselors see how to get core courses at their high school approved by the NCAA and how to advise students regarding course selection and standardized testing. A brief overview of the Initial Eligibility Clearinghouse is also provided. Helpful tools for students and parents include “Questions to Ask as You Consider Colleges” and “Information for Parents and Guardians.” Eligibility worksheets, GPA and SAT scales are also provided as part of the Guide and are extremely useful. The Guide is revised each academic/recruiting year to reflect any changes to eligibility requirements and or recruiting procedures.
Watson, J.C. (2003). Overcoming the challenges of counseling college student athletes. (Report No. ED475387). Greensboro, NC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services. Retrieved May 24, 2006 from e-subscribe database.
It is estimated that between 10 and 15 percent of American college athletes – that’s 35,000 and 50,000 student athletes – are dealing with disturbing psychological, social, academic, and/or emotional issues and may benefit from counseling treatment. However, as a group, student athletes do not typically seek out counseling help to deal with these issues. A culture of strength and resilience are likely contributing factors.
Barriers to seeking out help exist at several levels: the departmental level, the university level, and at the team level. At the departmental level, those employed by the athletic department may not be trained to handle psychological or cognitive developmental issues. At the university level, in trying to obey NCAA guidelines, additional support and help may not be available to student athletes. Finally, at the team level, team commitments such as practices and games significantly cut into the amount of time students have to devote to personal issues.
Counselors at the high school level can help student athletes by helping heighten awareness of these needs and issues. In addition, when researching schools, questions should be asked about mental health and academic support services available to student athletes, and whether dedicated resources are available to student athletes that may be organized around athletes’ peculiar schedules.
Varsity Edge. http://www.varsityedge.com
Varsityedge.com bills itself as a “national online recruiting information center.” This online resource offers tips and advice on athletic recruiting for high school students, parents, and coaches. An overview of some of the complex NCAA rules is also available, including a breakdown of the Basic Contact Rules. Review of these rules in plain-English is particularly helpful not only for students and parents, but for counselors, as well. Rules governing telephone calls and official visits are broken down into Division I, Division II, and Division III categories. Eligibility by Division is also set forth in layman’s terms, as is financial aid and a glossary of common recruiting terms. Finally, advice is provided regarding school research, interviews, and college admission for student athletes. The site offers advice that is both practical and realistic for a range of prospective athletes. The NCAA rules are complicated, but this site breaks things down into digestable pieces. I highly recommend this site for those becoming familiar with the many different components of college admission and athletic recruiting.
Additional resources are available for order, including a comprehensive guidebook on preparing the high school athlete for college recruitment. While some products are available for purchase via the Web site, there is also a lot of free information made available to visitors, as well.